Directions: For this Reflection Assignment, respond to the following prompt and

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Directions: For this Reflection Assignment, respond to the following prompt and use the format provided.
[Be sure to relate a portion of your reflection to at least one of the major theoretical perspectives (A-J). This reflection is good practice in preparation for part of the final exam.]
Think back to the information in Chapters 9 and 10. What material related to these two chapters caught your attention the most and why? Provide a title for your reflection, in order to frame what you’ve decided to share with the instructor. Submit this assignment in Bb following this format:
[2 pts.] Title of reflection:
[12 pts. There is a 5 sentences minimum requirement.]
PSY 241 – Some of Psychology’s Major Perspectives (and some theories)*
*Refer to this Word document often, especially when completing the Discussion Assignments [seated sections] DB posts [online sections], some Test questions, Reflection Assignments, and the Final Exam.
A. Psychoanalytic – Psychodynamic Perspective – describe development as primarily unconscious (beyond awareness) and heavily influenced by emotion.
1. Sigmund Freud’s Theory
• emphasizes the unconscious
• adult personality is the result of how we resolve crises in the five stages of psychosexual development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital)
• emphasizes sexual instincts (contemporary psychoanalysts emphasize cultural experiences)
2. Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
• proposes eight psychosocial stages of development, which unfold throughout the life span
• each stage represents a crisis that must be resolved for healthy development to occur
B. Cognitive Perspective – emphasize conscious thoughts.
1. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
• four stages of development in which child constructs their understanding of the world.
• two processes that underlie development: organization and adaptation
• to make sense of our observations and experiences, we must organize them in some meaningful way
• we also adapt our thinking to include new ideas and experiences
2. Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory
• children actively construct their knowledge
• emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development
• social interaction, especially with more skilled peers and adults, helps children learn to use the tools that will help them adapt and be successful in their culture
3. The Information-Processing Theory – emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it
• individuals develop an increasing capacity for processing information in a gradual way, rather than in stages
• emphasizes that an important aspect of development is learning good strategies for processing information—the microgenetic method (Sieglar’s area of expertise)
C. Behaviorism Perspective – state that development is observable behavior that can be learned through experience with the environment.
1. B. F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory
• through operant conditioning, the consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence.
• if a behavior is followed by a pleasant consequence, it is more likely to recur, but if it is followed by an unpleasant consequence, it is less likely to recur
• rewards and punishments that occur in the environment actually shape development
D. Social Cognitive Perspective – state that behavior, environment, and cognition are the key factors in development.
1. Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
• observational learning occurs through observing what others do
• proposes a model of learning and development that involves interaction among the behavior, the person, and the environment
E. Humanistic-Positive Perspective – people strive to live meaningful, happy lives; they are motivated by growth and psychological health.
1. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
• needs range from basic physiological necessities to psychological needs for growth and fulfillment
• concept of self-actualization, or the inherent drive to realize one’s full potential
2. Carl Roger’s Humanistic Theory
• people perceive themselves as we really are (real self) and as we ideally would like to be (ideal self)
• a psychologically adjusted person experiences congruence between the real self and the ideal self
• emphasis on unconditional positive regard or the acceptance of another person regardless of their behavior
3. M. Seligman’s and M. Csikszentmihalyi’s Positive Psychology
• focus is on positive states and experiences (hope, optimism, wisdom, creativity, spirituality, and positive emotions such as happiness)
• more research-based approach, in comparison to humanistic theories
F. Perspective with an emphasis on NATURE – emphasis on the timing of certain
influences and the powerful roles that evolution and biological foundations play in
development.
1. Ethological Theory –
• Konrad Lorenz’s study of imprinting in geese showed that innate learning within a limited critical period is based on attachment to the first moving object seen, usually the mother
• The notion of a sensitive period reflects the recent expansion of the ethological view of human development
G. Perspective with an emphasis on NURTURE – emphasize the impact of environmental contexts on development.
1. Uri Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
• consists of these five interacting environmental systems, ranging from direct interactions with social agents to cultural influences:
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chrononsystem
• emphasis on the range of social context beyond the family
Note: The next three perspectives do not include specific theories or theorists. However, feel free to consider their major assumptions as you select a specific perspective to discuss with an assignment.
H. Evolutionary Perspective
Major Assumptions:
• Human thought and behavior have been shaped by evolutionary forces (natural and sexual selection).
• Emphasizes that thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are always an interaction between nature (biological) and nurture (environment).
I. Sociocultural/Cross-Cultural Perspective
Major Assumptions:
• thought, behavior, and personality are mostly products of social and cultural conditions
• there are both similarities and differences in thought, personality and behavior cross-culturally
J. Neuropsychology-Behavioral Genetics Perspective
Major Assumptions:
• The foundation for thought and behavior is biological and genetic forces.
• Differences in traits, dispositions, and ways of thinking stem from differences in genotype and central nervous system (brain structures and neurochemistry).
Adapted from:
Feist, G. J., & Rosenberg, E. L. (2022). Psychology: Perspectives and
connections, 5th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Santrock, J. W. (2020). A topical approach to life-span development, 10th ed.
Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

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